Management Information
Location Specific Management InformationColorado
Seery et al. (2003) tested the effectiveness of deltamethrin, a synthetic pyrethroid similar to permethrin. Deltadust was found to significantly reduce flea populations within prairie dog burrows and on the animals themselves. It also had a significant residual effect, with flea populations at non-detectable levels after 84 days. Furthermore, Deltadust seemed to suppress an epizootic of plague at another area on Rocky Mountain Arsenal during the summer of 2000. There were no losses of prairie dogs on the treated colonies, while populations were decimated in the adjacent untreated colonies. The authors conclude that Deltadust is an effective insecticide for control of flea populations in prairie dog colonies, and is an important tool for managing plague epizootics in these animals (Seery et al. 2003).A number of authors have proposed a trophic-cascade hypothesis for human plague that hypothesizes high precipitation increases plant productivity, which increases rodent and flea populations 1-2 years later. Increased rodent populations lead to higher contact rates between host and vector and higher rates of transmission to humans (e.g. Enscore et al. 2002 in Collinge et al. 2005). Collinge et al investigated whether this trophic cascade model fitted for prairie dog populations in Montana and Colorado. They found evidence in support of the temperature-modulated trophic-cascade hypothesis for plague occurrence in the Montana study area, but no evidence supporting this hypothesis in Colorado. However this may be due to a lack of data or differences in landscape features that affect plague transmission. Plague in prairie dogs has previously been considered highly unpredictable in space and time. However models produced by Collinge and colleagues (2005) that relate climate and plague occurrence in the Montana study area suggest that it may be possible, with further research, to reveal strong relationships between climate and plague occurrence and make predictions about patterns of plague occurrence in certain areas. In areas where climate in more variable, such as Colorado, other factors may better predict plague occurrence in prairie dogs (Collinge et al. 2005). Montana
A number of authors have proposed a trophic-cascade hypothesis for human plague that hypothesizes high precipitation increases plant productivity, which increases rodent and flea populations 1-2 years later. Increased rodent populations lead to higher contact rates between host and vector and higher rates of transmission to humans (e.g. Enscore et al. 2002 in Collinge et al. 2005). Collinge et al investigated whether this trophic cascade model fitted for prairie dog populations in Montana and Colorado. They found evidence in support of the temperature-modulated trophic-cascade hypothesis for plague occurrence in the Montana study area, but no evidence supporting this hypothesis in Colorado. However this may be due to a lack of data or differences in landscape features that affect plague transmission. Plague in prairie dogs has previously been considered highly unpredictable in space and time. However models produced by Collinge and colleagues (2005) that relate climate and plague occurrence in the Montana study area suggest that it may be possible, with further research, to reveal strong relationships between climate and plague occurrence and make predictions about patterns of plague occurrence in certain areas. In areas where climate in more variable, such as Colorado, other factors may better predict plague occurrence in prairie dogs (Collinge et al. 2005). New Mexico
To aid in targeting limited public health resources, Eisen et al (2007-A) created a fine-resolution human plague risk map for New Mexico, the state reporting more than half the human cases in the United States. "The model classified 17.25% of the state as posing significant risk of exposure to humans, which suggests that resource requirements for regular surveillance and control of plague could be effectively focused on < 20% of the state." This model will allow prevention activities to be focussed on areas of highest risk, where they are most likely to lead to a reduction in human cases (Eisen et al. 2007-A). Peru
Under the leadership of the Ministry of Health, a coordinated plan of rodent control was elaborated with the participation of the Agricultural sector and the district municipality, since massive rodent elimination may lead fleas to feed on other warm-blooded mammals.
Uganda
Plague control programs in this region should remain focused on reducing rat flea populations, although our findings imply that cat fleas should not be ignored by these programs as they could play a significant role as secondary vectors (Eisen et al. 2008)
Management Resources/Links
1. Anisimov, A.P. & Amoako, K. 2006. Treatment of plague: promising alternatives to antibiotics. Journal of Medical Microbiology 55: 1461-1475. 2. Blisnick, T., Ave, P., Huerre, M., Carniel, E. & Demeure, C.E. 2008. Oral vaccination against bubonic plague using a live avirulent Yersinia pseudotuberculosis strain. Infection and Immunity 76(8): 3808-3816. 6. Cornelius, C.A., Quenee, L.E., Overheim, K.A., Koster, F., Brasel, T.L., Elli, D., Ciletti, N.A. & Schneewind, O. 2008. Immunization with recombinant V10 protects cynomolgus macaques from lethal pneumonic plague. Infection and Immunity 76(12): 5588-5597. 11. Kummer, L.W., Szaba, F.M., Parent, M.A., Adamomvicz, J.J., Hill, J., Johnson, L.L. & Smiley, S.T. 2008. Antibodies and cytokines independently protect against pneumonic plague. Vaccine 26: 6901-6907. 12. Morris, S.R. 2007. Development of a recombinant vaccine against aerosolized plague. Vaccine 25: 3115-3117. 13. Rocke, T.E., Smith, S., Marinari, P., Kreeger, J., Enama, J.T. & Powell, B.S. 2008-B. Vaccination with F1-V fusion protein protects black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes) against plague upon oral challenge with Yersinia pestis. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 44(1): 1-7. 14. Rocke, T.E., Smith, S.R., Stinchcomb, D.T. & Osorio, J.E. 2008-A. Immunization of black-tailed prairie dogs against plague through consumption of vaccine-laden baits. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 44(4): 930-937. 15. Seery, D.B., Biggins, D.E., Montenieri, J.A., Enscore, R.E., Tanda, D.T. & Gage, K.L. 2003. Treatment of black-tailed prairie dog burrows with Deltamethrin to control fleas (Insecta: Siphonaptera) and plague. Journal of Medical Entomology 40(5): 718-722. 16. Smiley, S.T. 2008. Immune defense against pneumonic plague. Immunological Reviews 225: 256-271. 17. Titball, R.W. & Williamson, E.D. 2001. Vaccination against bubonic and pneumonic plague. Vaccine 19: 4175-4184. Results Page: 1
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